The arrival of the golden jackal (Canis aureus) in the Netherlands : a fact-finding study

Summary

The first golden jackal to be observed in the Netherlands was in 2016 and there have since been occasional appearances in the Netherlands. Over recent decades, the species has increased its range naturally from its original habitat in south-east Europe. The Netherlands is currently in the colonisation phase and there is no established population as yet. In the years ahead, the species is expected to extend its range further into Europe and increasingly appear in the Netherlands, potentially leading to more frequent interactions with human interests and (protected) fauna. For this reason, the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality has asked Wageningen Environmental Research to collate the existing knowledge about golden jackals and relate it specifically to the Netherlands, in order to inform society and policy of the current situation and what can be expected in the future. The golden jackal is a medium-sized canid. Its social structure is flexible and depends on the availability and distribution of food. Golden jackals are social group animals and generally form monogamous breeding pairs that live in a territory with their young (around 2-4) and possibly with the young from the previous year. Dispersal takes place as a result of sub-adult animals who go in search for a partner and a territory of their own. In this process, animals can cover hundreds of kilometres before establishing a new territory. These are opportunist omnivores who show a high level of flexibility in exploiting food sources. In Europe, they mainly consume small mammals (mostly mice) supplemented by farm animals and wild ungulates (both primarily in the form of carrion), and plants and fruit. Although golden jackals are usually solitary hunters, cooperative hunting may occur in small packs of 2 to 4 individuals, enabling larger prey to be caught. Predation of sheep has been observed in various European countries, including the Netherlands. Golden jackals can compete with other carnivores, such as the red fox and mustelids. As a result of predation, there could be a potential (local) impact on populations of mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds. However, there has so far been no scientific evidence of the golden jackal having any negative ecological impact in Europe. In addition to negative effects on rare species, there could also be a potential (local) impact on more common species, such as geese and (field) mice. Golden jackals occur in a wide range of types of habitat, both in natural areas and in agricultural landscape rich in cover (small-scale landscape with scrubland and forest). In its use of habitat, the golden jackal appears to have adopted a niche that is slightly more restricted than the red fox and there has been no colonisation of urban areas. The average density varies widely from an average of 1 to 10 territorial packs/100 km2, with the highest density being 50/100 km2. In areas where wolves are prevalent, golden jackals appear to become outcompeted. According to modelling, the estimated carrying capacity for the Netherlands is around 1,400 packs in areas of the Netherlands without wolves up to around 800 packs in cases where wolves have already colonised the suitable habitat for them in the Netherlands. The average home range size is also highly variable, ranging from approximately 1-30 km2. This makes it difficult to clearly ascertain the expected average size of a territory in the Netherlands. The golden jackal is included in Annex V of the Habitats Directive, which means that the species must enjoy a favourable conservation status in European Union countries. The species is not subject to strict protection in accordance with the Habitat Directive and there is no designation of Natura 2000 areas. In addition, the golden jackal is covered by the basic regime of the Bern Convention and is not considered to be an Appendix II or III species (endangered or vulnerable species). In the Netherlands, the golden jackal is not subject to any specific protection in accordance with the Environment and Planning Act. For that to happen, this would require an amendment to the Living Environment (Activities) Decree, Article 11.54, Annex IX. Its status in Europe varies from protected to unprotected through to (year-round) huntable status. Canids that are closely related to the golden jackal, such as wolves, coyotes and dogs can interbreed and produce (fertile) hybrids. In the early stage of establishment, the chance of hybridisation tends to be mainly at the edge of the distribution area. In cases where hybridisation can be demonstrated, removal (with an environmental permit) is permitted in accordance with the Habitat Directive and the Bern Convention. Conflicts with human interests may occur as a result of attacks on farm animals and pets, attacks on humans, collision with vehicles and the transmission to humans of zoonoses. Attacks on humans and frequent attacks on farm animals and pets would appear to be unlikely. Golden jackals generally avoid human environments, especially by day. So far, there have been no known golden jackal attacks on humans in Europe. Any problematic situations that may be expected are mainly possible in the case of habituation or conditioning in the process of foraging. Golden jackals that could constitute a problem are individuals that demonstrate excessively bold behaviour towards humans and therefore form a risk of bites, those specialising in pet or farm animals or those that repeatedly attack properly protected livestock. There is a real risk of vehicle strikes involving golden jackals, but in view of the animal’s size and weight, the impact of any collision with a vehicle is unlikely to be significant. There would appear to be only occasional instances of golden jackals actively hunting ungulates. Farm animals are part of the diet, but mostly in the form of carrion. Any (significant) increase in the number of collisions involving ungulates, as a result of pursuit by jackals, would therefore not be expected. Golden jackals can carry a range of zoonoses, with the worldwide list covering more than 190 zoonotic diseases. Most of the zoonoses also occur in foxes and also have low to moderate prevalence in European golden jackals. This means that there will be no additional risk if golden jackals become established in the Netherlands since they would constitute a very limited additional source of infection for humans. Depending on the situation, preventive measures can be taken against the predation of farm animals. Many of the applicable methods are similar to those used to combat wolves and foxes. In the event of a pack or individual golden jackal causing systematic damage, the option of removing the animal or animals (with an environmental permit) by shooting or capture may be considered. This would also apply in the event of unexpected negative effects on rare species or ecosystems. Any such decisions will be based on the need to safeguard the favourable conservation status of the species. The monitoring of (problem) individuals or packs can be based on information obtained by means of acoustic monitoring, wildlife cameras, tagging and genetic monitoring of carcasses of dead animals, faecal matter and prey, etc.